Identification of Bioactive Phytoconstituents and Biological Activities of Wheat Germ Oil: A Critical Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37285/ijpsn‐aktu.2022‐10Abstract
Wheat germ oil (WGO) is a potent herbal product. The byproduct of WGO is procured by wheat milling, and it is extracted by commercial hexane, pressurized solvent extraction, supercritical CO2 extraction, cold press, and ethyl acetate extraction. The major derivative of WGO extraction is defatted (the fat was removed during extraction) germ meal that is rich in albumin, globulin and a rational profile of amino acids. It has many minerals like magnesium, potassium, calcium, manganese, and zinc, has a high nutritional value, and is used as a nutraceutical. The most abundant phytoconstituent of wheat germ oil is a fatty acid (linoleic acid). It has a wide range of pharmacological actions, like potential antioxidant properties, reproductive activity, anti-inflammatory, neurodegenerative, and anti-cancer properties because of vitamin E. Antioxidants act as a protective agent against toxicity. The stability of oil was the major issue for its acceptability in the market, but now different microencapsulation techniques should be widely used to increase the shelf life of oil and improve its use in cosmetics, dietary supplements, and pharmaceuticals. For the stability of the oil, different microencapsulation techniques should be widely used to increase the shelf life.
Downloads
Metrics
Keywords:
wheat germ oil, pharmacological property, bioactive compound, extraction method, NutraceuticalsPublished
How to Cite
Issue
Section
References
Babu CR, Ketanapalli H, Beebi SK, Kolluru VC. Wheat bran-composition and nutritional quality: a review. Adv Biotechnol Microbiol. 2018 April 30;9:1-7.
Bayat E, Moosavi-Nasab M, Fazaeli M, Majdinasab M, Mirzapour-Kouhdasht A, Garcia-Vaquero M. Wheat germ fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus plantarum: process optimization for enhanced composition and antioxidant properties in vitro. Foods. 2022 April 14;11(8):1125.
Dunford NT. Wheat germ oil. In: Moreau RA, KamalEldin A, editors, Gourmet and health-promoting specialty oils. Elsevier; 2009. p. 359-76.
Rizzello CG, Mueller T, Coda R, Reipsch F, Nionelli L, Curiel JA et al. Synthesis of 2-methoxy benzoquinone and 2, 6-dimethoxybenzoquinone by selected lactic acid bacteria during sourdough fermentation of wheat germ. Microb Cell Factories. 2013;12:105.
Megahed MG. Study on stability of wheat germ oil and lipase activity of wheat germ during periodical storage. Agric Biol J North Am. 2011;2(1):163-8.
Rizzello CG, Nionelli L, Coda R, De Angelis M, Gobbetti M. Effect of sourdough fermentation on stabilisation, and chemical and nutritional characteristics of wheat germ. Food Chem. 2010;119(3):1079-89.
Higdon J. α-carotene, β-carotene, β-Cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. The Micronutrient Information Center is a public service of the Linus Pauling Institute. 2004.
Barnes PJ. Lipid composition of wheat germ and wheat germ oil. Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 1982;84(7):256-69.
Ghafoor K, Özcan MM, Al‐Juhaımı F, Babıker EE, Sarker ZI, Ahmed IAM et al. Nutritional composition, extraction, and utilization of wheat germ oil: a review. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 2017 July;119(7):1600160.
Jalil AQ, Hamid ES, Allaw AA. Effects of octacosanol, wheat germ oil and rice oil supplementation on egg quality traits of laying quail. InIOP Conference Series. Earth and Environmental Science. 2021 November 1 (Vol. 910, No. 1, p. 012095). IOP Publishing.
Wang T, Johnson LA. Refining high-free fatty acid wheat germ oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2001 January;78(1):71-6.
Zhu KX, Zhou HM, Qian HF. Proteins extracted from defatted wheat germ: nutritional and structural properties. Cereal Chem J. 2006;83(1):69-75.
Brestenský M, Nitrayová S, Patráš P. Wheat germs and their protein quality for human nutrition. Nutr Food Sci Int J. 2019;8(5):555746.
Attia RS, Abou-Gharbia HA. Evaluation and stabilization of wheat germ and its oil characteristics. Alex. J Food Sci Technol. 2011;8(2):31-9.
Dubois M, Geddes WF, Smith F. The carbohydrates of the Gramineae. 10. A quantitative study of the carbohydrates of wheat germ. Cereal Chem. 1960;37:557-68.
Brandolini A, Hidalgo A. Wheat germ: not only a by-product. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2012 March 1;63;Suppl 1:71-4.
Siraj N. Wheat germ oil: A comprehensive review. Food Sci Technol. 2022 March 14;42.
Kabir Y, Kimura S. Distribution of radioactive octacosanol in response to exercise in rats. Nahrung. 1994;38(4):373-7.
Arruzazabala ML, Valdés S, Más R, Carbajal D, Fernández L. Comparative study of policosanol, aspirin, and the combination therapy policosanol-aspirin on platelet aggregation in healthy volunteers. Pharmacol Res. 1997 October 1;36(4):293-7.
Paranich VA, Cherevko OI, Frolova NA, Paranich AV. The effect of wheat germ oil on the antioxidant system of animals. Likars’ ka sprava. 2000 March 1;2:40-4.
Leenhardt F, Fardet A, Lyan B, Gueux E, Rock E, Mazur A et al. Wheat germ supplementation of a low vitamin E diet in rats affords effective antioxidant protection in tissues. J Am Coll Nutr. 2008;27(2):222-8.
Calder PC. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 September 1;75(3):197-202.
Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Mehra MR, Ventura HO. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 August 11;54(7):585-94.
Reverchon E, Marrone C. Modeling and simulation of the supercritical CO2 extraction of vegetable oils. J Supercrit Fluids. 2001;19(2):161-75.
Lang Q, Wai CM. Supercritical fluid extraction in herbal and natural product studies-a practical review. Talanta. 2001;53(4):771-82. 11.
Hauthal WH. Advances with supercritical fluids-review. Chemosphere. 2001;43(1):123-35.
Soltan MM, Mahfouz SA, Karam EA, Motawe FH. Insights on traditional and modern oil extractions of wheat germ: chemical and antimicrobial evaluation. Int J PharmTech Res. 2020;13(2):30-4.
Megahad OA, El Kinawy OS. Studies on the extraction of wheat germ oil by commercial hexane. Grasas Aceites. 2002;53(4):414-8.
Piras A, Rosa A, Falconieri D, Porcedda S, Dessì MA, Marongiu B. Extraction of oil from wheat germ by supercritical CO2. Molecules. 2009 July 15;14(7):2573-81.
Özcan MM, Rosa A, Dessi MA, Marongıu B, Pıras A, AL Juhaimi F. Quality of wheat germ oil obtained by cold pressing and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Czech J Food Sci. 2013 May 22;31(3):236-40.
Taniguchi M, Tsuji T, Shibata M, Kobayashi T. Extraction of oils from wheat germ with supercritical carbon dioxide. Agric Biol Chem. 1985 August 1;49(8):2367-72.
Molero G mez A, Mart nez de la Ossa E. Quality of wheat germ oil extracted by liquid and supercritical carbon dioxide. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2000;77(9):969-74.
Eisenmenger M, Dunford NT. Bioactive components of commercial and supercritical carbon dioxide processed wheat germ oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2008;85(1):55-61.
Ge Y, Yan H, Hui B, Ni Y, Wang S, Cai T. Extraction of natural vitamin E from wheat germ by supercritical carbon dioxide. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50(4):685-9.
Shao P, Sun P, Ying Y. Response surface optimization of wheat germ oil yield by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Food Bioprod Process. 2008;86(3):227-31.
Zacchi P, Daghero J, Jaeger P, Eggers R. Extraction/fractionation and deacidification of wheat germ oil using supercritical carbon dioxide. Braz J Chem Eng. 2006;23(1):105-10.
Fang X, Moreau RA. Extraction and demulsification of oil from wheat germ, barley germ, and rice bran using an aqueous enzymatic method. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2014 July;91(7):1261-8.
Xie M. Aqueous enzymatic extraction of wheat germ oil ([doctoral dissertation]. Oklahoma State University).
Al-Obaidi LF. Development of a two-step extraction process for wheat germ oil recovery. Oklahoma State University; 2012.
Li H, Song C, Zhou H, Wang N, Cao D. Optimization of the aqueous enzymatic extraction of wheat germ oil using response surface methodology. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2011 June;88(6):809-17.
Bello I, Rasaq N, Adeniyi A, Hammed A. Enzyme aided processing of oil. IntJHalalRes. 2021 September 18;3(2):60-72.
Boukid F, Folloni S, Ranieri R, Vittadini E. A compendium of wheat germ: separation, stabilization and food applications. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2018 August 1;78:120-33.
Özcan MM, Ören D. Comparative of physico-chemical properties of wheat germ oil extracted with cold press and supercritical CO2 extraction. Iran J Chem Chem Eng (IJCCE). 2019;38(6):167-74.
Harrabi S, Ferchichi A, Fellah H, Feki M, Hosseinian F. Chemical composition and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of wheat germ oil depending on the extraction procedure. J Oleo Sci. 2021;70(8):1051-8.
Moreau RA, Fang X. Analysis of alkylresorcinols in wheat germ oil and barley germ oil via HPLC and fluorescence detection: chromatography with tools. Cereal Chem J. 2016;93(3):293-8.
Dunford NT, Zhang M. Pressurized solvent extraction of wheat germ oil. Food Res Int. 2003 January 1;36(9-10):905-9.
Kalra EK. Nutraceutical definition and introduction. AAPS PharmSci. 2003;5(3):27-8. doi: 10.1208/ps050325.
Mali S, Rathod S, Kale N, Shinde N. Overview of nutraceuticals. Asian J Pharm Res. 2022;12(1):61-70.
Berdick M. The role of fats and oils in cosmetics. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1972 July;49(7):406-9.
Loch CdO, Souza PdC, Frigieri I, Isaac V, Chiavacci LA, Oshiro Júnior JA et al. Development and characterization of highly structured rinse-off conditioners containing vegetable oils. J Dispers Sci Technol. 2022 July 1;43(9):1283-90.
Abelan US, de Oliveira AC, Cacoci ÉSP, Martins TEA, Giacon VM, Velasco MVR et al. Potential use of essential oils in cosmetic and dermatological hair products: a review. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2022;21(4):1407-18.
Cureton TK, Pohnoorf RH. Influence of wheat germ oil as a dietary supplement in a program of conditioning exercises with middle-aged subjects. Res Q Am Assoc Health Phys Educ Recreat. 1955 December 1;26(4):391-407.
Consolazio CF, Matoush LO, Nelson RA, Isaac GJ, Hursh LM. Effect of octacosanol, wheat germ oil, and vitamin E on performance of swimming rats. J Appl Physiol. 1964 March 1;19(2):265-7.
Salisbury GW. A controlled experiment in feeding wheat germ oil as a supplement to the normal ration of bulls used for artificial insemination. J Dairy Sci. 1944 July 1;27(7):551-62.
Khedr NF. Fish oil and wheat-germ oil supplementation restore ovarian function in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Reprod Fertil Dev. 2017 September 4;29(9):1689-98.
Abdel‐Gawad SK. Therapeutic and protective effect of wheat germ oil on L‐arginine induced acute pancreatitis in adult albino rats. J Cell Sci Ther. 2015;s8:S8-S004.
Shokry DA, El Nabrawy N, Yassa HD, Gaber SS, Batiha GE, Welson NN. Pregabalin induced reproductive toxicity and body weight changes by affecting caspase3 and leptin expression: protective role of wheat germ oil. Life Sci. 2020 November 1;260:118344.
Guven H, Durmus N, Hocaoglu N, Guner O, Acar S, Akan P et al. Protective effects of wheat germ oil against erectile and endothelial dysfunction in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int J Impot Res. 2022;34(6):581-7.
El-Marasy SA, El-Shenawy SM, El-Khatib AS, El-Shabrawy OA, Kenawy SA. Effect of Nigella sativa and wheat germ oils on scopolamine-induced memory impairment in rats. Bull Fac Pharm Cairo Univ. 2012 December 1;50(2):81-8.
Ergül M, Bekele A, Terzi H, Altun A. Evaluation of in vitro anticancer activity of wheat germ oil in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines. Cumhuriyet Med J. 2019 September 1;41(3):500-5.
Karami Z, Peighambardoust SH, Hesari J, Akbari-adergani B, Andreu D. Antioxidant, anticancer and ACE-inhibitory activities of bioactive peptides from wheat germ protein hydrolysates. Food Biosci. 2019 December 1;32:100450
Petrescu AM, Zbîrcea LE, Buzan MR, Jucos GL, Ifrim FC, Ilia G et al. Chemometrics study of germs plant for determining anticancer activity. New Front Chem. 2020 April 1;29(2):99-108.
Emam KK, Abdel Fattah ME, El Rayes SM, Hebishy MA, Dessouki AA. Assessment of wheat germ oil role in the prevention of induced breast cancer in rats. ACS Omega. 2022 April 14;7(16):13942-52.
El-Kott AF, Bin-Meferij MM. Suppressive effects of capsaicin against N-nitrosomethylurea-induced mammary tumorigenesis in rats. Biomed Pharmacother. 2018;98:673-9.
Khalifa FK, Khalil FA, Barakat HA, Hassan MM. Protective role of wheat germ and grape seed oils in chlorpyrifosinduced oxidative stress, biochemical and histological alterations in liver of rats. Aust J Basic Appl Sci. 2011;5(10):54-66
Chajès V, Thiébaut AC, Rotival M, Gauthier E, Maillard V, Boutron-Ruault MC, Joulin V, Lenoir GM, Clavel-Chapelon F. Association between serum trans-monounsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in the E3N-EPIC Study. American journal of epidemiology. 2008 Jun 1;167(11):1312-20.
Liu J, Shimizu K, Kondo R. Anti-androgenic activity of fatty acids. Chem Biodivers. 2009;6(4):503-12.
Vijayabaskar G, Elango V. Determination of phytocompounds in Withania somnifera and Smilax china using GC-MS. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2018;7(6):554-7.
Bailer AC, Philipp S, Staudt S, Weidauer T, Kiehntopf M, Lorkowski S et al. UVB-exposed wheat germ oil increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 without improving overall vitamin D status: A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Nutr. 2022 February 27;61(5):2571-83.
Małecka M. Antioxidant properties of the unsaponifiable matter isolated from tomato seeds, oat grains and wheat germ oil. Food Chem. 2002 November 1;79(3):327-30.
Abdel-Rahim GA, Mahmoud GI. Protective effects of a wheat germ rich diet against the toxic influence of profenofos on rat tissue lipids and oxidative pentose phosphate shunt enzymes. Grasas Aceites. 2011;62(3):344-52.
Kang BK, Kim MJ, Jeong DH, Kim KB, Bae NY, Park JH et al. Anti-inflammatory effect of wheat germ oil on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and mouse ear edema. Microbiol Biotechnol Lett. 2016;44(3):236-45.
El-Bana MA, Abdelaleem AH, El-Naggar ME, Farrag AH, Mohamed SM, El-Khayat Z. Formulation of wheat germ oil based on nanoemulsions to mitigate cisplatin’s nephrotoxic effects. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2022 February 1;158:106603.
Kandeil MAM, Hassanin KMA, Mohammed ET, Safwat GM, Mohamed DS. Wheat germ and vitamin E decrease BAX/BCL-2 ratio in rat kidneys treated with gentamicin. Beni Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci. 2018 September 1;7(3):257-62.
Orabi SH, Abd Eldaim Mabrouk A, Shawky SM, Zaid A. Wheat germ oil ameliorates sucrose induced hepatosteatosis and dyslipidemia through controlling Lipogen9ic and Cholestrogenic genes expression in rats; 2016.
Alahdal AT, Arafat RA. The Antioxidant effects of Wheat Germ Oil Against potassium bromate Induced hepatorenal toxicity in Male Rats. Life Sci J. 2017;14(9).
Said UZ, Saada HN, Mahdy ES, Shousha WG, Shedid SM. Wheat germ oil attenuates gamma radiation-induced skeletal muscles damage in rats. Egypt J Biochem Mol Biol. 2008 December 1;26(2).
Abdel Fattah SM, Fahim TM, El-Fatih NM. Prophylactic role of combined treatment with wheat germ oil and ginseng against radiation injury in male rats. Egypt J Hosp Med. 2011 October 1;45(1):403-15.
Shedid SM. Role of wheat germ oil in radiation-induced oxidative stress and alteration in energy metabolism in rats; 2008.
Srivastava N, Rai AK. Hypoglycemic effect of polyherbal formulations in alloxan induced diabetic mice. J Drug Deliv Ther. 2018 March 14;8(2):87-95.
Srivastava N, Tiwari G, Tiwari R. Polyherbal preparation for anti-diabetic activity: A screening study. Indian J Med Sci. 2010;64(4):163-76.
Samra G. Hypoglycemic Health Association; 2001.
Ramadan FL. Efficacy of wheat germ oil in alleviating certain disorders induced by aspirin administration and/or {gamma}-irradiation in pregnant albino rats and their foetuses. Egyptian Journal of Radiation Sciences and Applications. 2007;20.
Türkoğlu GC, Sarıışık M, Karavana SY, Aydın Köse FA. Production of wheat germ oil containing multilayer hydrogel dressing. Carbohydr Polym. 2021 October 1;269:118287.
Akool el-S. Molecular mechanisms of the protective role of wheat germ oil against cyclosporin A-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Pharm Biol. 2015 September 2;53(9):1311-7. 980584
Kumar GS, Krishna AG. Studies on the nutraceutical composition of wheat derived oils, wheat bran oil and wheat germ oil. J Food Sci Technol. 2013:1-7.
Ostlund REJ. Cholesterol absorption. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2002;18(2):254-8.
Wijendran V, Hayes KC. Dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acid balance and cardiovascular health. Annu Rev Nutr. 2004;24:597-615.
Brinton EA, Mason RP. Prescription omega-3 fatty acid products containing highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Lipids Health Dis. 2017;16(1):23.
Gorusupudi A, Baskaran V. Wheat germ oil: A potential facilitator to improve lutein bioavailability in mice. Nutrition. 2013;29(5):790-5.
Haglund O, Luostarinen R, Wallin R, Wibell L, Saldeen T. The effects of fish oil on triglycerides, cholesterol, fibrinogen and malondialdehyde in humans supplemented with vitamin E. J Nutr. 1991;121(2):165-9.
Zakaria H, Mostafa TM, El-Azab GA, Abd El Wahab AM, Elshahawy H, Sayed-Ahmed NAH. The impact of fish oil and wheat germ oil combination on mineral-bone and inflammatory markers in maintenance hemodialysis patients: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Int Urol Nephrol. 2017;49(10):1851-8.
Farooq U, Akram K, Akram K, Hayat Z, Shafi A, Sarfarz F et al. Fatty acid profile and bio-efficacy of wheat germ oil in hyperlipidemic rabbits. Pak J Agric Sci. 2021 April 1;58(2).
Hussein SA, Abdel-Aal SA, Elghwab AIM. Biochemical role of wheat germ oil on biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammatory response in a rat model of endotoxemia. Pol J Food Nutr Sci. 2014;60:175-81.
Taylor JC, Rapport L, Lockwood GB. Octacosanol in human health. Nutrition. 2003 February 1;19(2):192-5.
Mitmesser S. Octacosanol and wheat germ oil. Taylor et Francis Group LLC. 2007 April 19.
Chadha R, Ram H, Purohit A. Hypolipidemic effect of wheat germ oil in cholesterol-fed Rabbits. Med. Drug Res. 2015;3:15-20.
Ali SS, Et al. Janabi, M.S. Int J Pharm Qual Assur. 2021. Comparative Study on Therapeutic Effect of Wheat Germ Oil and Sesame Oil with Some Lipid-lowering Drugs in Local Male Rabbits with hyperlipidemia, induced by Triton X-100: Physiological and Histological Study;12(2):76-83.
Robatjazi SM, Goodarzi N, Ettehadi HA, Samadieh S, Zeinoddini M. Development of a formulation of vanishing cream containing wheat germ oil with safe preservation, and measurement of antioxidants in the cream by a rapid method. Tabari Biomed Stud Res [journal]. 2022 March 10;4(1):3-12.
Kim MH, Jo SH, Ha KS, Song JH, Jang HD, Kwon YI. Antimicrobial activities of 1, 4-benzoquinones and wheat germ extract. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2010;20(8):1204-9
Abdelmaksoud HF, Aboushousha TS, El-Ashkar AM. Deep glance on the antiparasitic anticancer activities of wheat germ oil in chronically infected immunosuppressed mice with cryptosporidiosis. J Parasit Dis. 2022 June 2;46(3):785-94.
Abdelmaksoud HF, Osman EEA, Abdel-Hameed SS, Aboushousha T, Naggar HME. In vivo evaluation of anticryptosporidial effects of wheat germ extracts in immunocompromised mice. J Parasit Dis. 2022 June;46(3):833-44.
Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C, Usman NK, Hunter PR. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007 April;63(4):387-93.
